State of Environment - ecosystems | The Estonian Environmental Portal

Key messages

In Estonia, the condition, extent, and ecosystem services of the main terrestrial ecosystems — forests, mires, meadows and agricultural land — have been assessed and mapped at the national level.
Habitat types listed under the Habitats Directive (Natura 2000) in Estonia have a more favourable conservation status compared to the EU average.
The use of natural resources, including forestry and agriculture, places pressure on ecosystems, while also playing a significant role in the national economy.
Ecosystem services are crucial both for the economy (forest management, agriculture, etc.) and for human health and well-being (such as clean air and water). However, the value of these services depends on the condition and viability of the habitats.

State

The conservation status of habitat types listed under the Habitats Directive has improved in Estonia.
Estonia has 60 habitat types protected under the Directive, and their good condition is essential for both biodiversity and the overall quality of the living environment. By 2007, 42% of these habitat types were in favourable condition, increasing to 52% in 2013 and 56% in 2019. The best status was found in Estonia’s marine and coastal habitats, while most mire, forest, and meadow habitats remain in unfavourable condition. Source: Environmental Agency, 2020
In the European Union, only 24% of habitat types were in favourable condition, with no significant improvement compared to previous assessment periods. The condition of grasslands, dunes, and wetlands continues to deteriorate across Europe, while forest habitats show signs of improvement. Source: European Environment Agency, 2021

The EU Habitats Directive defines habitat types that are rare or threatened across Europe and requires Member States to ensure their preservation and favourable conservation status. Sufficient areas are designated under protection to ensure that endangered species and their habitats can survive despite increasing environmental pressures. In Estonia, there are 60 habitat types listed under the Habitats Directive, also known as Natura 2000 habitat types. You can explore them here, and more detailed information on the methodology for assessing their status is available here. A more comprehensive overview of nature conservation in Estonia can be found in the Environmental Agency’s publication "Nature Conservation in Estonia 2020".

Comparisons of the conservation status of Natura 2000 habitat types across EU Member States can be found on the website of the European Environment Agency.

The Habitats Directive covers only selected habitat types and does not encompass the full diversity of ecosystems present in the country. Therefore, four main terrestrial ecosystems were mapped comprehensively at the national level within the ELME project. This methodology also includes habitat types not covered by the Directive, including areas with relatively low biodiversity value.

Overall, 54% of Estonia's terrestrial ecosystems are in good or moderate condition, while 40% are in poor condition.
Mire ecosystems are in the best condition, with 53% classified as good and 17% as moderate condition. Most of the large natural mires are under protection.
In forest ecosystems, 11% are in good and 60% in moderate condition, reflecting the impact of forest management on their natural state.
The poorest conditions are found in agricultural ecosystems, where monotonous arable land still dominates, and in meadows, which require traditional management to maintain biodiversity. Only 2% of agricultural ecosystems are in good condition and 15% in moderate condition. For meadow ecosystems, 21% are in good condition, and 12% in moderate condition. Source: Environmental Agency, 2023

Pressures

The use of natural resources is a key part of the economy, but increasing intensity of their use is degrading habitat conditions and reducing the availability of various ecosystem services.
According to Statistics Estonia, the export of peat, wood, and cereals accounted for 12.8% of Estonia’s total exports in 2023, amounting to approximately €2.32 billion (wood and wood products 10.7% or €1.94 billion, cereals 1.28% or €233 million, and peat 0.85% or €148 million).
The establishment of peat mining areas and associated extensive drainage has been the main factor affecting the ecological condition of mires. In 2022, about 96% of peat products produced in Estonia were horticultural peat, 92% of which was exported (mainly to China). Source: A. Kull and M. Küttim, 2023
Logging pressure and deforestation are the main factors impacting the ecological condition of forests. According to the wood balance data (2021), the main sources of wood in Estonia are harvesting from forest land (10.7 million m³) and imports (5 million m³). The largest end uses were energy consumption of wood fuels (5.6 million m³) and the export of wood and wood products (11.4 million m³). Wood pellets, whose production volume increased fivefold between 2011 and 2021, account for one-third of total exports. Logging is considered the main reason why 35% of Western Taiga habitat (Habitat Directive type 9010*) are in poor condition. In contrast, Alluvial forests with Alnus glutinosa and Fraxinus excelsior (91E0*) and Tilio-Acerion forests of slopes, screes and ravines (9180*), which are in favourable condition, have a high protection rate (92% for both), which supports the persistence of diverse natural communities. Source: Environmental Agency, 2020
In agricultural landscapes, the main pressures come from land use practices and the low level of naturalness – lack of biodiversity-rich, high-quality farmland. The natural value of farmland can be maintained and improved by limiting the use of pesticides, enhancing landscape diversity or proximity to healthy, species-rich natural habitats. The greatest threats to food production and food security are considered to be the loss of biodiversity and climate change. See more in the ELME project report by the Environmental Agency and overviews by the Ministry of Regional Affairs and Agriculture.
The biodiversity of meadows, including heritage meadows, has developed over long-term grazing and mowing and is largely dependent on active management. Challenges include the complexity of managing these areas and the abandonment of traditional practices such as grazing and mowing, which leads to overgrowth, reed expansion, or forestation. Additional threats include land use change such as conversion to arable land, construction, or afforestation.
Climate change amplifies environmental degradation and is an increasingly important pressure on ecosystems. According to the European Environment Agency, the area of ecosystems affected by drought has been increasing, reaching a record high in 2022. As a result of climate change, the spread of pests and plant diseases is expected to increase significantly—for example, spruce bark beetle or ash dieback in forest ecosystems.

Impacts

The unfavourable condition of ecosystems affects negatively both the economy and human well-being. Healthy ecosystems provide vital ecosystem services and are key to ensuring climate resilience. The better the ecological condition of habitats, the more essential functions/ecosystem services they provide. Conversely, as ecological condition deteriorates, nature’s ability to deliver these services declines.
According to the Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services by IPBES, 14 out of 18 ecosystem services categories assessed have clearly declined over the past 50 years. While agricultural and timber production have increased, unsustainable land use has reduced productivity on 23% of terrestrial areas and the loss of pollinator diversity threatens annual food production valued at USD 235–577 billion.
The World Bank estimates that the global economy could lose approximately 2.3% of its value due to declining ecosystem services by 2030, with low-income countries facing losses of up to 10%.
According to the Environmental Agency’s ELME mapping, the connectivity of terrestrial ecosystems and the value of habitat services in Estonia are significantly higher in protected areas.

The good coherence of ecosystems, meaning the sufficient number and connectivity of habitats in good condition, supports species dispersal, the viability of populations, and helps preserve genetic diversity, even in habitats that are in poorer condition.

The services provided by nature are divided into regulatory, provisioning, and cultural services. Regulatory services include climate regulation (carbon storage, greenhouse gas sequestration), buffering capacity (flood buffering), biological control, pollination, and habitat provision and maintenance. Provisioning services include food and feed production in agricultural ecosystems, wood, and natural products (such as mushrooms and berries). Cultural services include recreational, nature-based activities, and ecotourism opportunities.

Responses

Changes in individual components of ecosystems indicate broader changes that may result from use of natural resources or climate change. The regular national environmental monitoring plays a crucial role in detecting such changes. The results of the biodiversity and landscape monitoring sub-programme can be explored here.
To preserve biodiversity and nature in good condition, protected areas have been preserved and established. The EU Biodiversity Strategy sets the goal of protecting 30% of the EU’s land and inland waters by 2030 – by the end of 2021, 26% of these areas were under protection across the EU.
Including Estonia’s large lakes (Lake Peipsi, Lake Võrtsjärv), the total share of protected areas is 20.8%, while protected terrotory (including smaller water bodies) accounts for 19.8%. In total, including projected areas, approximately 28% of Estonia’s land area is currently under national protection. Regularly published statistics on nature conservation and the proportion of protected areas by county and municipality can be found here.
If habitats are degraded but not yet lost, there is still an opportunity to reverse negative trends and restore natural habitats. Restoration activities have already been implemented in wetlands, grasslands, and forests to improve their condition. For every euro invested in nature restoration, the added value of ecosystem services is estimated at €8–38. Source: European Commission
The EU Nature Restoration Regulation marks a significant agreement, requiring that by 2030, the poor condition of 20% of the EU’s land and sea areas must be improved. Once the regulation enters into force, nature restoration actions will gain momentum across Europe, and Estonia will be able to share its experience in restoring mires, heritage meadows, riverbeds and fish migration routes.
Estonia’s goal is to implement restoration measures in 30% of degraded habitats by 2030 and to achieve a favourable conservation status for all habitats and species by 2050.
Various support measures are available for habitat management, restoration and biodiversity conservation — for example, subsidies for mowing and grazing of semi-natural grasslands, support for “ecosystem services on agricultural land,” and compensation for maintaining forests with nature conservation restrictions.
Efforts are increasing to improve spatial planning by integrating nature, climate and socio-economic goals (e.g. ensuring ecological connectivity in spacial planning). For spatial planning decisions, planning and implementation of large-scale projects, it is essential to use up-to-date assessments of the condition, extent, and services of ecosystems. Where data is insufficient, thorough environmental studies should be carried out. This is necessary to ensure the sustainable use of ecosystem services so they remain available for future generations.